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Culture is the and found in. Culture is considered a central concept in , encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social in human. Some aspects of human behavior, social practices such as culture, expressive forms such as , , , , , and such as , , , and are said to be , found in all human societies. The concept of covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of including practices of and social , , , both and , and comprise the of a society. In the , one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in , sciences, , or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been seen to distinguish from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in distinctions between a of the social and a , , or of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as , or. Some schools of philosophy, such as and , have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the lower classes and create a , and such perspectives are common in the discipline of. In the wider , the theoretical perspective of holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in dispositions. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Within , the ideology and analytical stance of holds that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture. The word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of in humans around 50,000 years ago, and is often thought to be unique to humans, although some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complex, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that is transmitted through social and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form. Over a half century after their emergence they continue to have a. It has been estimated from archaeological data that the human capacity for cumulative culture emerged somewhere between 500 000 - 170 000 years ago. In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. Full-length profile portrait of woman, standing on a carpet at the entrance to a , dressed in traditional clothing and jewelry Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures, which themselves are subject to change. Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new , and spurring or enabling. These social shifts may accompany shifts and other types of cultural change. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last , plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of , which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In , the form of something though not necessarily its meaning moves from one culture to another. For example, , fast food in the United States, seemed exotic when introduced into China. Related processes on an individual level include adoption of a different culture by an individual and. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different culture and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs. In 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher 1767—1835 called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. This distinction is often characterized as that between , namely that of the , and. British anthropologist was one of the first English-speaking scholars to use the term culture in an inclusive and universal sense. This contrast led to 's theory of and 's theory of. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is really an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is really an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects. Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. In 1870 the anthropologist 1832—1917 applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms. In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all human societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. Culture can be any of two types, or. Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present. Cultural sociology first emerged in 1918—1933 , where sociologists such as used the term Kultursoziologie cultural sociology. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating and. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead focusing on words, artifacts and symbols. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of and. Early researchers and development of cultural sociology The sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology as shaped by early theorists like , , and with the growing discipline of , wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods much of cultural sociological research is qualitative , in the theories a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities , and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between , political control, and were early and lasting concerns in the field. In the , sociologists and other scholars influenced by such as 1932—2014 and 1921—1988 developed. They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by , which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production. In the United States, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of ; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. It has since become strongly associated with , who succeeded Hoggart as Director. As the field developed, it began to combine , , , , , , , , , , and to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. Cultural studies is concerned with the and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things such as watching television, or eating out in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. In the context of cultural studies, the idea of a text includes not only , but also , , or : the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is , based on the disciplines of and cultural studies. Scholars in the and the developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, , and , and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the. This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of for example Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and. This strain of thinking has some influence from the , but especially from the Marxism of and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies as residing with those producing. In a Marxist view, those who control the the economic base essentially control a culture. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. This view comes through in the book Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman by Paul du Gay et al. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of and. The writer is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism and human orientation. A new and promising approach to culture has recently been suggested by , who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts all reified meanings in circulation and cultural practices all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of meanings , thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice. Cited in Roy, Shuker 1997. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Physicist published a paper in a journal of cultural sociology stating that gravity was a social construct that should be examined hermeneutically. New York: Oxford University Press. New York: Oxford University Press: 87—93, 236—38. Austin: University of Texas Press. The Sage dictionary of cultural studies. The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain. New York and London: W. Language, Culture, and Personality: Essays in Honor of Edward Sapir. Memoir 69, American Anthropological Association. Global communication without universal civilization, vol. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan Press. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Carhart, The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany, Cambridge, 2007. The Symbolic Construction of Community. The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology. The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets. Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. William Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought. Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom. The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
